Table of Contents

1. What Are Pesticides?
2. Insecticides
3. Herbicides
4. Fungicides
5. Rodenticides
6. Organic Pesticides
7. Biological Controls
8. Neem Oil
9. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
10. Spinosad
11. Pyrethrins
12. Insecticidal Soaps
13. Horticultural Oils
14. Pesticide Safety
15. Environmental Fate of Pesticides
16. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
17. Choosing the Right Control Method

Pesticides are among the most widely used tools in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, public health, and home gardening. The term pesticide includes a broad range of substances designed to prevent, suppress, repel, or eliminate organisms that cause economic damage, crop loss, structural damage, disease transmission, or quality reduction. Modern pest management includes conventional pesticides, biological controls, cultural practices, mechanical controls, and integrated systems that combine multiple approaches. Understanding the different categories of pesticides and how they function allows gardeners, farmers, and land managers to make informed decisions based on target pests, environmental conditions, regulatory requirements, and long-term management goals. This guide examines the major pesticide groups, their uses, limitations, and their role within modern pest management systems.

1. What Are Pesticides?

Pesticides are substances used to prevent, destroy, repel, or manage pests that interfere with agricultural production, human health, stored products, structures, landscapes, and natural resources. The term encompasses insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, bactericides, miticides, nematicides, and many other specialized control products. A pesticide may be synthetic, naturally derived, biological, microbial, mineral-based, or produced through fermentation.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a pest as any organism that interferes with human activities or causes economic damage. Under that definition, pests may include insects, weeds, fungi, rodents, nematodes, mites, slugs, snails, bacteria, and invasive organisms. The purpose of a pesticide is not simply to kill a target organism. Many products work by disrupting feeding, reproduction, development, movement, or habitat establishment. Some products repel pests rather than kill them. Others suppress populations below economic damage thresholds.

Modern pesticide regulation evaluates toxicity, environmental persistence, exposure pathways, application methods, and potential impacts on non-target organisms. Before a pesticide may be registered in the United States, extensive testing is typically required to evaluate effectiveness, environmental behavior, and human safety. Label instructions become legally enforceable requirements governing use patterns, rates, timing, protective equipment, and crop restrictions.

Pesticides remain only one component of successful pest management. Many agricultural systems combine pesticides with crop rotation, resistant plant varieties, sanitation, biological controls, habitat management, and monitoring programs. This integrated approach helps reduce resistance development and improves long-term control outcomes. Understanding the broad definition of pesticides provides the foundation for understanding every other pest management tool discussed throughout this guide.

2. Insecticides

Insecticides are pesticides specifically designed to control insects that damage crops, ornamental plants, stored products, livestock facilities, forests, and residential environments. They represent one of the oldest and most diverse pesticide groups currently available. Modern insecticides may act through direct contact, ingestion, systemic uptake, respiration disruption, growth regulation, or reproductive interference.

Different insecticides target different physiological systems within insects. Some affect the nervous system, causing paralysis or death. Others interfere with molting, preventing immature insects from reaching adulthood. Certain products disrupt feeding behavior, while microbial insecticides infect susceptible insects with naturally occurring organisms. Because insects vary greatly in biology, feeding habits, and life cycles, product selection often depends on the target species and stage of development.

Systemic insecticides are absorbed by plants and transported through plant tissues. Feeding insects consume treated plant material and receive a toxic dose during feeding. Contact insecticides require direct exposure to the insect. Residual insecticides remain active on treated surfaces for varying periods depending on environmental conditions, formulation, and chemical stability.

Insecticide resistance represents one of the major challenges facing modern pest management. Repeated use of the same mode of action can select resistant populations capable of surviving treatments that once provided effective control. Resistance management strategies include rotating chemical classes, integrating biological controls, monitoring pest populations, and avoiding unnecessary applications.

Successful insecticide programs rely on proper identification of the pest, understanding of life cycles, accurate timing, label compliance, and integration with broader pest management practices. In many situations, insecticides achieve the greatest effectiveness when combined with monitoring programs and cultural practices designed to reduce pest pressure before economic damage occurs.

3. Herbicides

Herbicides are pesticides used to control unwanted vegetation, including annual weeds, perennial weeds, woody plants, invasive species, and nuisance vegetation in agricultural and non-agricultural settings. Weed competition can reduce crop yields by competing for sunlight, water, nutrients, and growing space. Herbicides provide one of the most widely used tools for managing this competition.

Herbicides are generally classified according to their mode of action, selectivity, timing, and movement within plants. Selective herbicides target certain plant groups while allowing desired crops to survive. Non-selective herbicides affect most vegetation contacted during application. Some herbicides act only where applied, while systemic products move throughout plant tissues to reach roots, rhizomes, stolons, and growing points.

Pre-emergent herbicides are applied before weed seeds germinate. These products create conditions that prevent successful seedling establishment. Post-emergent herbicides are applied after weeds emerge and begin active growth. Environmental conditions, plant growth stage, temperature, moisture, and application timing often influence performance.

Herbicide resistance has become a major management challenge worldwide. Repeated use of the same herbicide mode of action can result in resistant weed populations that survive treatments that once provided effective control. Modern weed management increasingly emphasizes diversified strategies that include cultivation, cover crops, crop rotation, mulching, competitive crop varieties, and herbicide rotation.

Effective herbicide use depends on accurate weed identification and understanding of weed biology. Annual grasses, perennial broadleaf weeds, sedges, and woody species may require very different management approaches. As a result, herbicide selection often begins with understanding the target weed rather than selecting a product first.

4. Fungicides

Fungicides are pesticides used to prevent, suppress, or manage plant diseases caused by fungi and fungus-like organisms that can reduce crop yields, damage ornamental plants, lower food quality, and shorten storage life. Plant pathogens such as powdery mildew, downy mildew, rusts, blights, anthracnose diseases, damping-off organisms, and numerous leaf spots can spread rapidly when environmental conditions favor infection. Fungicides function in different ways depending on the active ingredient and formulation. Protectant fungicides create a barrier that prevents infection from becoming established, while systemic fungicides are absorbed into plant tissues and can provide protection beyond the surface of the plant. Some fungicides are broad-spectrum and affect multiple disease groups, while others target specific pathogens. Timing is often one of the most important factors affecting fungicide performance because many products work best before extensive disease development occurs. Environmental conditions such as humidity, rainfall, irrigation practices, air circulation, and plant spacing influence disease pressure and therefore influence fungicide effectiveness. Resistance management is a major consideration because many plant pathogens can develop resistance when the same fungicide mode of action is used repeatedly. Modern disease management programs often combine fungicides with sanitation practices, resistant plant varieties, crop rotation, improved airflow, irrigation management, and monitoring systems designed to identify disease development before significant damage occurs. Fungicides remain an important tool in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, greenhouse production, and home gardening because fungal diseases can rapidly reduce plant health, marketability, and productivity when left unmanaged.

5. Rodenticides

Rodenticides are pesticides designed to control rats, mice, voles, gophers, and other rodents that damage crops, contaminate stored food, spread disease organisms, destroy infrastructure, and interfere with agricultural production. Rodents can consume seeds before germination, damage irrigation systems, tunnel through fields, girdle trees, contaminate harvested products, and create significant economic losses in both agricultural and urban environments. Modern rodenticides include anticoagulant and non-anticoagulant products. Anticoagulant rodenticides interfere with blood clotting mechanisms and generally require one or more feedings depending on the formulation. Non-anticoagulant products use different toxic mechanisms such as disruption of nervous system function, calcium regulation, or cellular processes. Rodent management extends beyond the use of toxic baits and often includes exclusion methods, sanitation programs, habitat modification, trapping systems, and population monitoring. One of the major concerns associated with rodenticide use is the potential impact on non-target wildlife, domestic animals, and scavenging predators that may consume poisoned rodents. Regulatory agencies have therefore implemented restrictions on certain products and application methods to reduce unintended exposure. Effective rodent management depends on understanding rodent behavior, feeding preferences, nesting locations, travel corridors, and seasonal population changes. Successful programs often integrate multiple control methods rather than relying entirely on toxic baits. Rodenticides remain important tools in agriculture, food storage facilities, public health programs, and structural pest management because uncontrolled rodent populations can rapidly multiply and cause substantial economic and environmental damage.

6. Organic Pesticides

Organic pesticides are pest management products derived from naturally occurring substances, biological organisms, minerals, or approved materials that meet organic production standards established by regulatory and certification programs. Organic pesticides do not necessarily mean non-toxic or risk-free, but they generally originate from sources permitted within organic farming systems. Examples include neem oil, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), spinosad, insecticidal soaps, horticultural oils, diatomaceous earth, sulfur, copper compounds, and microbial pesticides. Organic pest management emphasizes prevention, monitoring, biological controls, crop diversity, habitat management, resistant varieties, and cultural practices before pesticide applications become necessary. Many organic pesticides work through physical mechanisms rather than conventional toxicological pathways. Horticultural oils may smother insects and mites, insecticidal soaps disrupt cell membranes, and diatomaceous earth damages protective outer surfaces. Biological pesticides often target specific groups of pests and may have fewer impacts on non-target organisms when used correctly. Organic pesticides typically require careful timing and thorough coverage because many have shorter residual activity than conventional synthetic products. Environmental conditions can influence performance, particularly for microbial products that depend on temperature, humidity, and sunlight exposure. Organic producers often integrate multiple approaches rather than relying on a single pesticide solution. The continued growth of organic agriculture has expanded research into biological controls, microbial products, and naturally derived pest management tools that can help reduce pest populations while supporting broader ecological management objectives.

7. Biological Controls

Biological control is the use of living organisms to suppress pest populations and represents one of the oldest forms of pest management used in agriculture and horticulture. Unlike chemical pesticides that rely on active ingredients to kill or suppress pests directly, biological control uses predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and beneficial organisms to reduce pest numbers naturally. Lady beetles consume aphids, lacewing larvae feed on soft-bodied insects, predatory mites attack pest mites, and parasitic wasps lay eggs inside pest species that eventually die as the developing parasitoid matures. Biological controls also include microbial organisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes that infect or kill specific pests. One of the major advantages of biological control is that many beneficial organisms target a narrow range of pests while causing minimal disruption to non-target organisms and pollinators. Biological control programs can be classified as classical, conservation, or augmentative depending on how the beneficial organisms are introduced and managed. Conservation biological control focuses on preserving existing beneficial populations through habitat management and careful pesticide selection. Augmentative programs involve releasing additional beneficial organisms to increase control levels. Although biological controls rarely eliminate pest populations entirely, they often maintain pest numbers below damaging levels. Modern integrated pest management programs frequently combine biological controls with cultural practices, monitoring systems, resistant plant varieties, and selective pesticides to create sustainable long-term management strategies. As concerns about pesticide resistance and environmental impacts continue to increase, biological control remains an important component of modern agriculture and gardening systems worldwide.

8. Neem Oil

Neem oil is one of the most widely used botanical pesticides and is derived from the seeds of the neem tree, Azadirachta indica, a species native to the Indian subcontinent. Neem products contain several biologically active compounds, the most studied of which is azadirachtin. Rather than functioning as a traditional poison, azadirachtin affects insect feeding behavior, development, molting, reproduction, and population growth. Insects exposed to neem compounds may stop feeding, fail to complete normal development, or produce fewer offspring. Neem oil is used against aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs, scale insects, spider mites, leafhoppers, and numerous other pest species found in agricultural and horticultural systems. Some formulations also provide suppression of certain fungal diseases such as powdery mildew when applied correctly. Neem products are commonly used in organic production systems because they are derived from a plant source and many formulations meet organic certification requirements. Performance depends heavily on coverage because neem works primarily through direct contact and ingestion. Environmental conditions such as sunlight, temperature, rainfall, and plant growth stage can influence effectiveness. Although neem is often considered a lower-risk pesticide compared to many conventional products, label directions remain important because excessive application can affect beneficial insects if exposure occurs at the wrong time. Neem oil occupies a unique position within pest management because it combines insect growth regulation, feeding suppression, repellency, and disease management properties within a single product group. Its broad usefulness has made it one of the most recognized botanical pesticides available to gardeners and commercial producers.

9. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)

Bacillus thuringiensis, commonly known as Bt, is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that produces proteins toxic to specific groups of insects and has become one of the most important biological insecticides in modern agriculture. Different strains of Bt produce different proteins, allowing certain formulations to target caterpillars, mosquito larvae, fungus gnat larvae, or beetle larvae while leaving most other organisms unaffected. When susceptible insects consume plant material treated with Bt, the protein is activated within the digestive system and damages the gut lining, causing feeding to stop and death to occur shortly afterward. Because Bt must be ingested to work effectively, thorough coverage and proper timing are critical for successful control. Bt products are widely used against cabbage worms, corn earworms, tomato hornworms, armyworms, loopers, and other caterpillar pests that damage agricultural crops and garden plants. One of the major strengths of Bt is its selectivity. Pollinators, predators, parasitoids, birds, mammals, and most beneficial insects are generally unaffected when the product is used according to label directions. Bt has become a cornerstone of both organic agriculture and integrated pest management programs because it provides targeted control while reducing disruption to beneficial organisms. Resistance management remains important because repeated exposure can increase selection pressure on pest populations. For that reason, Bt is most effective when integrated with crop rotation, monitoring programs, biological controls, and other pest management practices that reduce dependence on a single control method.

10. Spinosad

Spinosad is a biological insecticide derived from compounds produced during the fermentation of the soil-dwelling bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa and is widely used in agriculture, horticulture, greenhouse production, and home gardens. The active ingredients, known as spinosyns, affect the insect nervous system through a mode of action different from many conventional insecticides. Susceptible insects experience excitation of the nervous system, loss of coordinated movement, feeding cessation, paralysis, and eventual death. Spinosad is effective against a wide range of pests including thrips, leafminers, caterpillars, fruit flies, flea beetles, Colorado potato beetles, and certain other chewing and rasping insects. One reason for its popularity is its effectiveness at relatively low application rates combined with a favorable environmental profile compared to many older insecticides. Spinosad products are used in both conventional and many organic production systems, although specific certification status depends on formulation and regulatory approval. Proper application timing remains important because exposure to pollinators can occur if applications are made while bees are actively foraging. Once residues dry, risk generally decreases significantly. Resistance management is also important because repeated use against the same pest populations can lead to reduced effectiveness over time. Modern pest management programs often rotate spinosad with products possessing different modes of action to preserve long-term performance. Because it combines biological origins, broad utility, and effectiveness against difficult pest groups, spinosad has become one of the most widely adopted biological insecticides available today.

11. Pyrethrins

Pyrethrins are natural insecticidal compounds extracted from the flowers of certain chrysanthemum species and have been used for insect control for more than a century. These compounds affect the insect nervous system by disrupting normal nerve signal transmission, producing rapid knockdown of many pest species. Pyrethrins are effective against aphids, whiteflies, mosquitoes, beetles, caterpillars, leafhoppers, flies, and numerous other insects encountered in agricultural, horticultural, livestock, and residential environments. One of their defining characteristics is rapid environmental degradation when exposed to sunlight and air. This relatively short persistence reduces long-term residues but can also limit residual control compared to longer-lasting products. Pyrethrins should not be confused with pyrethroids, which are synthetic compounds designed to mimic natural pyrethrins while providing longer residual activity. Because pyrethrins act on contact, thorough coverage of target pests is important for achieving effective control. Although widely regarded as lower-persistence insecticides, pyrethrins remain toxic to many insects, including beneficial species, if direct exposure occurs. For that reason, application timing and targeting are important considerations within integrated pest management programs. Pyrethrins are commonly combined with synergists such as piperonyl butoxide to improve effectiveness against certain pests. Their rapid action, broad spectrum of activity, and natural botanical origin have maintained their importance in modern pest management despite the development of many newer insecticide classes.

12. Insecticidal Soaps

Insecticidal soaps are pest control products formulated from potassium salts of fatty acids and are widely used for the management of soft-bodied insects and mites in gardens, greenhouses, nurseries, and agricultural production systems. Unlike many conventional insecticides, insecticidal soaps act primarily through direct physical contact rather than through residual toxicity. The soap solution disrupts cell membranes and protective outer layers, causing dehydration and death in susceptible pests. Aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs, spider mites, psyllids, scale crawlers, and thrips are among the pests commonly controlled with soap applications. Because insecticidal soaps must contact the target organism directly, thorough spray coverage is essential. Hidden pests located on leaf undersides, stems, or protected plant surfaces may escape treatment if coverage is incomplete. One advantage of insecticidal soaps is their limited residual activity, which reduces long-term exposure risks to beneficial organisms after sprays have dried. However, this same characteristic means repeat applications may be necessary when pest populations remain active. Plant sensitivity varies among species, and some plants can experience leaf injury when treated under unfavorable environmental conditions such as high temperatures or drought stress. As a result, label directions typically recommend testing a small area before widespread application. Insecticidal soaps are frequently incorporated into organic production systems and integrated pest management programs because they provide an effective non-persistent option for controlling many common soft-bodied pests while minimizing environmental accumulation and resistance concerns.

13. Horticultural Oils

Horticultural oils are highly refined petroleum-based or plant-derived oils used to manage insects, mites, and certain plant diseases through physical rather than conventional toxic mechanisms. These products work primarily by coating pests and blocking respiration, disrupting feeding, interfering with egg development, and suppressing certain fungal pathogens. Horticultural oils have been used in agriculture for more than a century and remain important tools in orchards, vineyards, greenhouses, landscapes, and home gardens. They are commonly applied against scale insects, aphids, whiteflies, spider mites, psyllids, mealybugs, and various overwintering pest stages. Dormant oils are typically applied when plants are not actively growing, while lighter summer oils may be used during the growing season under appropriate conditions. Coverage is critical because oils only affect organisms directly contacted during application. Environmental conditions strongly influence performance and crop safety. High temperatures, drought stress, freezing conditions, and incompatible pesticide mixtures can increase the risk of plant injury. One of the major strengths of horticultural oils is their low likelihood of resistance development because they affect pests through physical mechanisms rather than highly specific biochemical pathways. Many integrated pest management programs use horticultural oils to reduce pest populations while minimizing disruption to beneficial organisms. Modern formulations are substantially more refined than early products and provide improved crop safety, greater flexibility, and broader utility across a wide range of crops and ornamental plants.

14. Pesticide Safety

Pesticide safety is the collection of practices designed to reduce risks to applicators, bystanders, consumers, domestic animals, wildlife, and the environment during storage, mixing, application, transport, and disposal. Every pesticide carries a label that serves as a legal document specifying how the product must be used. The label contains information regarding target pests, approved use sites, application rates, restricted-entry intervals, personal protective equipment requirements, environmental hazards, storage instructions, and first-aid procedures. Safe pesticide use begins with reading and understanding the label before handling the product. Protective equipment may include gloves, eye protection, respirators, coveralls, chemical-resistant footwear, and other items depending on the product and application method. Mixing and loading activities often represent some of the highest potential exposure periods because concentrated formulations are handled before dilution. Environmental protection measures may include avoiding applications near water bodies, preventing spray drift, observing buffer zones, and monitoring weather conditions. Proper storage is equally important because pesticides should be kept in original containers, secured from unauthorized access, and protected from temperature extremes. Disposal procedures vary by product and jurisdiction but generally require compliance with local regulations governing containers and unused materials. Training programs, certification requirements, and continuing education help ensure that applicators remain informed about current regulations and best practices. Effective pesticide safety programs protect human health while supporting responsible pest management across agricultural, commercial, and residential environments.

15. Environmental Fate of Pesticides

Environmental fate refers to what happens to a pesticide after it is released into the environment and includes the processes that determine movement, persistence, transformation, and eventual breakdown. Once applied, a pesticide may remain on plant surfaces, bind to soil particles, dissolve in water, evaporate into the atmosphere, degrade through sunlight exposure, or be broken down by microorganisms. The behavior of a pesticide depends on its chemical properties as well as environmental factors such as temperature, soil composition, moisture levels, organic matter content, microbial activity, rainfall, and sunlight intensity. Some pesticides break down rapidly within days, while others may persist for longer periods depending on the active ingredient and environmental conditions. Movement through runoff can transport pesticides into surface water, while leaching may allow movement into deeper soil layers. Volatilization can result in movement through the atmosphere, particularly under warm conditions. Regulatory agencies evaluate environmental fate data extensively during pesticide registration because persistence and movement characteristics influence ecological risk assessments. Modern pesticide development increasingly focuses on products that provide effective pest control while minimizing unintended environmental impacts. Understanding environmental fate helps applicators select products, application timings, and management strategies that reduce off-target movement and improve stewardship. Environmental fate studies remain a critical component of pesticide science because they provide the information needed to balance pest control effectiveness with long-term environmental protection.

16. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a decision-making approach that combines biological, cultural, mechanical, physical, genetic, and chemical tools to manage pests while reducing unnecessary pesticide use and minimizing environmental impacts. Rather than relying on routine pesticide applications, IPM begins with accurate identification of the pest and evaluation of whether control is actually necessary. Many insects, weeds, diseases, and other organisms can be present without causing significant economic damage. Monitoring programs help determine population levels and identify when intervention thresholds have been reached. Cultural controls such as crop rotation, sanitation, irrigation management, resistant varieties, planting dates, and habitat modification often reduce pest pressure before pesticide applications become necessary. Biological controls may provide additional suppression through predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and beneficial organisms that naturally reduce pest populations. Mechanical and physical controls include trapping, cultivation, exclusion barriers, hand removal, mowing, mulching, and other non-chemical approaches. When pesticides are needed, IPM encourages selecting products that effectively target the pest while reducing impacts on beneficial organisms and the surrounding environment. Resistance management also plays a major role within IPM programs by encouraging rotation of modes of action and avoiding repeated use of a single pesticide class. Universities, extension programs, government agencies, and commercial agriculture have widely adopted IPM because it often provides effective long-term pest suppression while reducing costs, preserving beneficial species, slowing resistance development, and supporting sustainable production systems. Today IPM serves as the foundation for many modern pest management programs worldwide.

17. Choosing the Right Control Method

Choosing the right pest control method requires understanding the pest, the crop or site being protected, the level of damage being caused, environmental conditions, economic considerations, and the available management tools. No single pesticide or control strategy works effectively for every situation. The first step is accurate identification because many pest problems are misdiagnosed, resulting in ineffective treatments and wasted resources. Once the pest has been identified, managers must evaluate whether action is warranted and determine the most appropriate response. Cultural practices may solve some problems without pesticides. Biological controls may provide sufficient suppression in other situations. Mechanical and physical controls can be highly effective when infestations are localized or when exclusion is practical. When pesticide applications become necessary, product selection should be based on the target pest, application site, environmental conditions, label requirements, resistance concerns, and potential impacts on non-target organisms. Organic and conventional pesticides each have strengths and limitations that must be evaluated within the context of the management objective. Timing frequently determines success because many products perform best against specific life stages. Weather conditions, crop growth stage, irrigation practices, and beneficial insect activity may also influence the outcome. Effective pest management is therefore not simply about choosing a pesticide but about selecting the most appropriate combination of tools for a specific situation. The most successful programs typically integrate multiple approaches to provide reliable control while preserving long-term effectiveness and environmental stewardship.

Conclusion

Pesticides remain among the most important tools available for protecting crops, landscapes, forests, structures, stored products, and public health from damaging organisms. The term encompasses a diverse range of products including insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, biological pesticides, botanical pesticides, microbial pesticides, and specialized control materials designed for specific pest groups. Modern pest management increasingly recognizes that successful control rarely depends on a single product or technique. Instead, effective programs combine monitoring, accurate identification, cultural practices, biological controls, mechanical methods, environmental awareness, and carefully selected pesticides when intervention becomes necessary. Understanding how different pesticide groups function allows managers to select tools that match the target pest while reducing unnecessary applications and minimizing impacts on beneficial organisms. Advances in pesticide science continue to improve selectivity, application efficiency, and environmental stewardship. Integrated Pest Management provides a framework that combines these advances into practical decision-making systems capable of balancing effectiveness, economics, safety, and sustainability. Whether used in commercial agriculture or home gardens, pesticides achieve their greatest value when incorporated into broader management strategies designed to protect both productivity and environmental quality.

REFERENCES

1. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Pesticides
2. National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC)
3. USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS)
4. USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA)
5. University of California Integrated Pest Management Program (UC IPM)
6. Cornell Cooperative Extension Pest Management Guidelines
7. Purdue University Extension – Pest Management
8. Michigan State University Extension – Integrated Pest Management
9. Penn State Extension – Pest Management
10. Texas A&M AgriLife Extension – Integrated Pest Management
11. University of Florida IFAS Extension – Pest Management
12. Oregon State University Extension – Integrated Pest Management
13. Washington State University Extension – Pest Management
14. University of Minnesota Extension – Yard and Garden Insects
15. North Carolina State Extension – Integrated Pest Management